Saving the Children

Throughout history children have been deliberately killed, abused, and neglected by rulers, society or parents. Child abuse is an injury or pattern of injuries to a child that is not accidental. According to the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect, in 1995 about 2. 9 million children in the United States were reported as abused or neglected to government agencies that investigate child abuse. Child abuse can be hard to recognize sometimes because it is often under the name of spanking or discipline ( According to the National Committee for the Prevention of Child Abuse, par. 1). Even when the state takes children away from parents because of the severity of the abuse, parents sometimes deny that they did anything wrong (par. 2). But when does discipline become abuse? According to Utah State law, if you spank a child too hard and he/she gets a bruise, that technically counts as an incidence of child abuse (par. 2). Refraining from physical punishment, as practiced by parents and recommended by children psychologist today, would have shocked parents of earlier times (Murdock 7). Before the 1960 s parental discipline often took the form of physical punishment. When spankings became beatings physical abuse prevailed (7). Child abuse does not only consist of physical abuse. There are several types of child abuse, and unfortunately, some children experience more than one. Physical abuse includes deliberate acts of violence that injure or even kill a child. Unexplained bruises, broken bones, or burn marks on a child may be signs of physical abuse. The average age of victims of physical child abuse is eight years old (Wallace 33). Twenty-seven percent of all child maltreatment cases involve physical abuse. Three percent of these cases involve life-threatening injuries such as poisoning, fractures, or brain damage. Fourteen percent involve minor injuries, including bruises, cuts or shaking. The remaining eleven percent are unspecified injuries (33). The data is probably a low estimate of the true incidence of abuse since there is no exact method of determining unreported cases. Sexual abuse occurs when adults use children for sexual gratification ( According to the National Committee for the Prevention of Child Abuse, par. ). Sexual abuse may begin with kissing or fondling and progress to more intrusive sexual acts, such as oral sex and vaginal or anal penetration. Experts estimate that one out of every three or four girls and one out of every seven to ten boys below the age of eighteen are violated (Murdock 11). Other acts that use children as sexual objects, such as, child pornography and subjecting children to view sexual acts committed by adults, are also include in the definition of child sexual abuse (Gitterman 346). The US Department of Health and Human Services categorizes sexual abuse into three groups: intrusion (evidence of actual penile penetration), molestation with genital contact (acts where some form of actual genital contact had occurred), and other or unknown sexual abuse (unspecified acts not known to have involved actual genital contact: e. g. , fondling of breasts or buttocks, exposure) (11). Mary Pipher, the author of Reviving Ophelia, states in her book that she had seen a bumper sticker on a young man s car that read: If I don t get laid soon somebody s gonna get hurt (Pipher 219). This is the sick society we live in, on any given day in America, 480 women and children will be forcibly raped, 5,760 women will be assaulted by a male intimate partner and four women and three children will be murdered by a family member (219). Emotional abuse, another type of child abuse, destroys a child s self-esteem and undermines his confidence (Landau 36). Such abuse commonly includes repeated verbal abuse of a child in the form of shouting, threats, and degrading or humiliating criticism (36). Other types of emotional abuse are confinement, such as isolation or denying a child friends (39). The most common form of child abuse is neglect. Neglect makes up almost half of the confirmed cases of child abuse in the 1990 s ( According to the National Committee for the Prevention of Child Abuse, par. 1). Physical neglect involves a parent s failure to provide adequate food, clothing, shelter, or medical care to a child (par. 1). About fifty-five percent of children who are mistreated suffer from severe neglect (Morales, par. 6). These are very young children who are abandoned or left alone for more than forty-eight hours, aren t fed, do not receive needed medical treatment, or are not sent to school for days at a time (par. ). Emotional neglect occurs when a parent or caretaker fails to meet a child s basic need for attention and comfort. According to a study done by the US Department of Health and Human Services, 223,000 children or 3. 5 per 1,000 suffer from emotional neglect ( Murdock 103). Emotional neglect can also be in the form of overprotective restrictions that further immaturity and emotional overdependence. Young adults who have been abused often confuse the concept of the family. To them, violence, anger, and fear are common. They may also confuse love with violence r love with sex. Because of these family distortions some victims have a hard time receiving help (Jacklitsch & Powers 24). The consequences of child abuse are unfortunate. A child assaulted by a parent loses self-respect, hope, and trust and with no choice available, resorts to doing what they were taught, the only thing they know, abuse (Fong 27). The psychological effects of abuse include depression, low self-esteem, loss of trust, anxiety, denial, problems with establishing intimacy, feelings of futurelessness, and family distortion (Jaklitsch & Powers 20-28). Confirmed by several studies, researchers have demonstrated that depression is one of the most commonly reported symptoms by adults who were sexually abused as children (21). Low self-esteem, as well, is a symptom among young people. They approach situations feeling inferior and are afraid to hope (22). A loss of trust is also common. Experiences with their own parental figures has taught them not to count on adults for support, guidance, or protection (22). Maltreated teenagers are filled with anger caused by years of pain and rejection. They become afraid when under stress of minor frustrations. Underneath the anger is pain, which makes these young people particularly vulnerable to additional disappointment and mistreatment (23). Denial is a natural response to painful experiences. Some of the behaviors in which these young people hide their denial are through drugs, alcohol, constant listening to music, sexual activity and aggression (23). Establishing intimacy is difficult for maltreated adolescents because their feelings were often discounted. They must realize that they are not responsible for their maltreatment 23-24). Many abused children feel hopeless. They have little faith in the future because they have learned to expect little or nothing of what they hoped for as children (24). A great deal of abuse happens secretly in the privacy of people s homes. Too often we only hear about the most sensationalized cases of abuse: those that reach television, radio, and newspapers (Landau 12). However, more subtle forms of abuse take place in households around the world on a daily basis (13). Why are so many children severely neglected and abused by those responsible for their care? Research has clearly revealed that child abuse is not associated with race or ethnicity in this country. The strongest correlating factor is poverty. However, abuse is found at all socioeconomic levels (Morales, par. 8). Parents who live on less than $15,000 a year are more likely to abuse their children than those who earn more than $30,000 per year (par. 8). Drug and alcohol abuse is also highly associated with child abuse. As a group, the largest number of children who are abused or neglected grew up having one or more alcoholic parents (Murdock 90). Substance abuse undermines adults ability to function in many areas, including parenting, work, and personal life (Morales, par. 9). There is also a strong relationship between stress and violent physical outburst directed at youngsters who are at the wrong place at the wrong time. Abusive mothers report high levels of parental-stress which they claim is brought about by their child s poor compliance with behavior-directed instructions and their own tolerance levels towards their child s behavior (Busby 47). Stress that is brought on by a variety of conditions raises the risk of child abuse within a family. These conditions include unemployment, illness, poor housing conditions, a larger-than-average-family size, the presence of a new baby, a disabled person in the home, or the death of a family member, but as always, families living in poverty make up the majority of reported child abuse cases. An important resource to help manage personal stress is the support of others e. g. , a spouse, relative, or friend (Morales, par. 10). Sexual abuse is driven by several destructive factors. Often, the perpetrator was sexually victimized as a child or youth and, unlike others, did not heal from the experience. The result frequently is distorted sexual drives and emotional needs. Divorce and single parenting expose children to other men who do not have a biological or long term commitment to youngsters well-being. Not to mention the erotic society that we live in which includes some men who have not learned or found a way to manage their sexual needs (par. 11). We must make an effort to prevent child abuse before it occurs. The process through which children are taken out of their homes and placed in the care of their economically poor relatives (usually grandparents), which occurs in almost fifty percent of cases, is a weak solution. It is costly, oftentimes leaves children in a state of emotional instability, and adds economic strain to the financially poor grandparents who are trying to raise their kin; and generally it is too late to prevent permanent damage to the child from years of abuse (Morales par. 15). The only hope in preventing much of this is for society to set an expectation for prospective and new parents to prepare themselves for the role. Parenting must be taken on with the utmost responsibility (par. 16). Next, private and public organizations, such as, churches, YMCA s community colleges, and city-funded community centers, could create family resource centers where parents could find practical information on parenting, classes for parents and kids, as well as childbirth classes (par. 17). Fortunately, some parenting programs have already been established. According to the National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse (NCPCA), child maltreatment is a complex problem with a multitude of causes, an approach to prevention must respond to a range of needs (Donnelly, par. 1). The NCPCA has devised a strategy that consists of a variety of community-based programs to prevent child abuse. Hopefully, these programs will provide parents and children with the education and support necessary for healthy family functioning (par. 1). Some of the prevention programs include the prenatal support program. Its purpose is to prepare individuals for the job of parenting. Currently, home visitation is the most innovative prevention program used in approaching the difficulties of educating and supporting the at-risk-family (par. 3). Treatment for abused children include therapeutic day school programs as well as day hospital programs, residential programs, and home and clinical setting treatment. These programs concentrate on improving the emotional and developmental skills of younger children and psychodynamic treatment for children in older age groups (par. ). Child abusers must be stopped, closely monitored or removed from society before any more young people are damaged for life. While hospitals, schools, and community agencies have a critical role in preventing child abuse, they cannot do it alone. Educational campaigns are necessary to make the public aware of how severe child abuse is and how individuals can make a difference. The effectiveness of diminishing child abuse will only be realized when there is a fully aware public committed to preventing child abuse.

Eurocrisis and Monetary&Fiscal Policy

The government will have to borrow from overseas or International Monetary Funds to pay for the differences between the import spending and export costs. The European Union lend to Greece 109 billion of euros to bailout (Foreleg and Walker, 2011, July 23). This is really a burden for a country and it may bring negative effects to the government policy and function, because the government will have to response the imbalance in both the government spending and policies. It is a real social cost. Meanwhile, the confidences of the foreign will be effect. They may care about the external imbalance in their partner country because it is related to their profits and stability.The external imbalance may make investors feel risky and then reduce the investment or charge more on the loans, which will make the imbalance worse. And for the country, it is really a risk because the economic imbalance has negative influences on many different factors, such as the value of the currency and the natio nal credit rating. Portugal, Italy, Ireland, Greece and Spain (PASS) face the decreasing of value of their credit rating. Now Greece is C and Portugal is B+ (Hawkers, 2012, January 14). Both of them are not optimistic. When government face recession they will consider increase public expenditure and cutting taxes to stimulate demand and decrease the unemployment rate (Quailing, Eastward and Holmes, 2009).However, in this case, the crisis countries have so many debts that make their government deficit large enough to do no actions. What they have to do is to austerity their fiscal policy to reduce the deficit. So Greece executes the 5 years plan to get loans. Comparing to other European countries, PASS are relatively falling behind. Their economies are more relied on labor force type of industry such as globalization, companies are seeking for cheaper labor forces; their advantages are no longer existed. If these countries do not adjust their industry structure, they will e much frag ile than now during the financial crisis. Also, the labor forces among European Union are also not liquid.Companies from different country have different tax system so their funds become bubbles. The theory of optimum currency area is based on labor mobility, price and wage flexibility as the preconditions. Also the mobility can instead of the floating of exchange rate. Euro zone creates a system that labor can move freely, however, because of the culture, language, welfare and social norms, the labor forces inside European Union cannot achieve completely liquid Robinson, 2008). Monetary Policy The central bank of Europe has set several targets to help to achieve and maintain the macro economic objectives. The main target is to keep the prices stable and achieve the low inflation level in the medium term.And it also set targets of maintaining financial system stability and improves the payments system. The purpose that the central bank of Europe sets these targets is to achieve the economic objectives, promoting the healthy growth of the whole economy (Paula, 2009). And the most common and effective measure used by it is the monetary policy. The central bank helps to achieve the macroeconomic objectives through meeting its targets, with using the monetary policy. Using the monetary policy, the central bank can change the interest rate to adjust the aggregate demand, and then help to achieve the macroeconomic objectives. When the inflation occurs, the central bank will carry out the cash rate target, bringing up the official interest rate.And then, the central bank will sell the government securities to commercial banks. The interest rate for cash will be increased, because the decrease of the cash supply. In order to maintain heir profits, financial institutions charges more rates on loans and so does the deposits. Therefore, the households and firms will borrow less and prefer to save money in the banks rather than spend quickly. It means that the aggregate d emand is reduced and so does the inflationary pressure. The reduction of demand brings the prices down, so domestic produced goods will have advantage in the prices in the international market. More export earnings will be got and the external balance will be achieved.In addition, the low prices may attract more foreign investors to invest, which will benefit to the long term economic growth and full employment. It means that although the higher interest rate will reduce the production and make people lose their Jobs in the short term, it could bring chances for the future development. The similar theory is suitable for the opposite condition. When the aggregate demand needs to be pulled up, the central bank will decrease the interest rate and encourage economic activities, stimulating the growth of the economy so European Central Bank decreased interest rate in December 2011 by 0. 25% to increase aggregate demand (European Central Bank, 2012).Also, European Union has the same monet ary policy but without the same fiscal policy (Brittany, Timelier, Bergsten, Exchanging and Meltzer, 2010). Government financial policy serves internal to increase economic growth and decrease the unemployment rate. Indeed, these two on the allocation efficiency, currency policy serves external to keep low inflation rate and the stable currency exchange rate (Hudson and Quailing, 2009). Currency system and government financial system are not unedited so the coordination is difficult. When European Union was founded, they do not consider the quitting system, so hen there come problems, the costs of negotiations are very high (Repack, 2010). It leads the problems to the Euro crisis.When one or two membership countries have problems with their economics, they only can discuss inside the meetings to solve the problems. Then the market will face the strong fluctuations, and these fluctuations also make the problems unsolved. The banks among Euro zone have other European Union countries' debts. This makes European banks' credit expansion crazily, and the management risks increase fast. Their ratio of total capital and Tier 1 capital is even Geiger than the banks in supreme crisis in the USA (Beg, 2009). Conclusion Overall, although investors are losing confidence with euros, the monetary policy keeps the Euro price stability at an acceptable range. MIFF also lend huge amount of euros to save the market.

Action Research

The idea for my action research study came from observing a heated conversation in the teacher’s lounge. Several teachers complained about the new principal while others silently and cautiously agreed. More and more often the displeasure of her tactics with the teachers and other staff members was becoming more prominent and crystallized as the topic for a possible research. (See More on this page) I was not so sure, however, whether the new principal (let us call her Mrs. A.) was aware of her affect on people. Te topic entailed the small-scale active research format involving opinions and debates of willing participants. I knew I had to be careful not to create a situation of more of a social nature versus investigative and productive framework. I decided to call my action plan â€Å"An investigation into perceptions and opinions of successful practices in school management styles,† thus centering and going away from Mrs. A. becoming a target of negative attention. This was professional issue, and I knew that I needed some development in my knowledge within the subject, hence the need to be objective and to keep an open mind to extend the boundaries of my understanding in both directions. This was an opportunity to help both the school staff and the school administrator. The active part of the research came from the approach to actively involve all concerned (including Mrs. A.) and secure their cooperation by agreeing to answer a questionnaire (one in the beginning of the process and another at the end to raise the internal validity index) and the attitude survey. In addition, and before the questionnaire was distributed, I invited all participants to participate in an open but formal debate with the specific structure and time limits. To elicit honest perspectives and avoid the threat of bias (I was a teacher in that school), I recruited an independent industrial/organizational psychology student from the local university to conduct and supervise the debate. I knew that I needed to remove myself from any perception of power or control over the resulting data to guarantee the validity to the process. Thus, the psychology student with the help of his professor also performed all statistical analysis. Moreover, I felt that the questions on the questionnaire I designed initially were too biased toward my own opinions. I therefore, asked the same psychology student to redesign the questions for me. Once the questionnaire was ready, I took some extra time to personally meet with all participants and explain the purpose of the research. I was very careful not to give an impression that I had any private agenda in such matter. Designing the study as the technically oriented research I welcomed any duplication to increase reliability. Understanding my purpose in designing this action research plan, every participant was very cooperative. After the questionnaires were administered and collected, I realized that an independent observer might perceive a possibility to gender bias in judging responses of the questions: both the psychology student and myself were males while the rest of participants were females. Conducting this research as active helped me to develop two relevant professional purposes: the data resulting from interviews and from the questionnaire are context related as well as the subject to external and mutual influences. The second purpose is personal growth with the ability to generate new perspectives for all participants and non-participants alike. Sardo-Brown (1995) rose an interesting point about the practical benefits for practicing teachers conducting own research within their classrooms. This practice has the potential to influence the teacher’s work and to elevate the motivation and the desire to affect his or her students. The practitioner usually would begin with some questions defining the problem that is being present within the classroom life. Such problem is more relevant to the teacher who teaches that class than to the administrator(s). The solution of this problem relies on identifying the exact cause and finding a methodology to compensate for the negative affect. The teacher who becomes an active researcher has greater sense of responsibility and motivation since the resolved problem will improve visibly the quality of work being performed. Action research, then, is the tool carried out by the practitioner him or herself to address a practical problem and to influence practice affording greater responsibility. There is a sense of empowerment that becomes a source of increasing the teachers’ role in school-wide leadership and decision-making. To demonstrate the effectives of active research mode-type practices Sardo-Brown (1995) described the research processes of six classroom teachers; two of which taught at elementary level, two at the middle level, and two at the high school level. More recent account was presented my Merrill (2204) who directly posited a question, â€Å"When was the last time you sat back and contemplated how effective your teaching is?† Most certainly, this type of inquiry can be asked in any field of human endeavor, but the teaching is the most prominent since the quality of which is influenced by so many variables. This author had a particular interest in sustained technology education and hence was his interest in action research. To his credit, Merrill quoted a very descriptive dfinition of action research from the works of Stephen Corey (1953): A continual disciplined inquiry conducted to inform and improve our practice as educators. Action research asks educators to study their practice and its context, explore the research base for ideas, compare what they find to their current practice, participate in training to support needed changes, and study the effects on themselves, their students, and colleagues (Calhoun, 2002, p.18). This definition in its fullness describes the method and purposes behind such process. It names the research as an â€Å"inquiry† implying on the generally set and the most primal purpose behind any research. Then it directs our attention as its reflect-ability. Indeed, we need to study our own practice and its context, â€Å"explore the research base for ideas and compare (what was found) with (our) current practice†¦Ã¢â‚¬  But the main prerogative is to improve what we are doing even if its subjectively successful (Merrill, 2004). That main purpose was also supported by Zuber-Skerritt (1996) who provided the plan and concrete pathway to form new directions in action research. They were instrumental in that by first providing the readers in exact description and identification of different types of action research. They supported the practical definition of Calhoun by stating, â€Å"Action research is research into practice, by practitioners, for practitioners†¦Ã ¢â‚¬  Despite to such a practical view, this author’s book provided a good research foundation on how to do the action research and what exactly it is. Works Cited Armstrong, Felicity, and Michele Moore, eds. Action Research for Inclusive Education: Changing Places, Changing Practice, Changing Minds. New York: RoutledgeFalmer, 2004. Questia. 28 Apr. 2007 . Dadds, Marion. Passionate Enquiry and School Development: A Story about Teacher Action Research. London: Falmer Press, 1995. Questia. 28 Apr. 2007 . Merrill, Chris. â€Å"Action Research and Technology Education.† The Technology Teacher 63.8 (2004): 6+. Questia. 28 Apr. 2007 . Sardo-Brown, Deborah. â€Å"The Action Research Endeavors of Six Classroom Teachers and Their Perceptions of Action Research.† Education 116.2 (1995): 196+. Questia. 28 Apr. 2007 . Zuber-Skerritt, Ortrun, ed. New Directions in Action Research. London: Falmer Press, 1996. Questia. 28 Apr. 2007 .   

Changes in Leadership and CEO Succession Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Changes in Leadership and CEO Succession - Essay Example Founded in 1839 by Oliver Chace, the Valley Falls Company specialized in textile manufacturing. Its 1889 merger with Berkshire Cotton Manufacturing saw the company’s name change to Berkshire Fine Spinning Associates. The company’s final merger then followed this in 1955 with Hathaway Manufacturing Company, which resulted in its new name Berkshire Hathaway. Initially, the company had been successful expanding its operations across the US. However, after the World War I, a decline in the textile industry led the company shutting down several of its mills. This was when (1962) Warren Buffet began buying stock in the company. By 1964, Buffet had acknowledged that the waning textile industry would not lead to an improvement in the company’s finances; therefore, he agreed to sell his shares when he received an oral tender offer from Seabury Stanton (the company’s owner). Stanton’s failure to uphold his end of the bargain rendered the deal void, which moti vated an aggrieved Buffet to purchase more shares from the company to become majority shareholder. In 1967, Buffet set his sights on insurance, and decided to purchase the National Indemnity Company. Since then, he shut down the remaining textile mills and continued to acquire subsidiary companies while investing in the stock market. Currently, Forbes magazine ranks Berkshire Hathaway as the fifth biggest public company in the world. Presently, Buffet serves in the capacity of CEO, Chairman, Chief Investment Officer (CIO) and majority shareholder. As such, the company must find an individual or group of individuals with the expertise required to perform the diverse functions. The proposed succession plan is split into five parts whereby three parts focus on personnel, one on corporate culture and the last on institutional ownership. The company’s Board of Directors proposes that

Strategic Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Strategic Management - Essay Example An anchor company can supply ships to marine wholesalers, they can supply anchors to marine wholesalers. In addition to this they can also supply steel plates, metal fabrications, plastic injection modeling so on and so forth. Structural steel frames and bases are also included in these services. As far as the case study is concerned, it is known that Albatross only supplies hooks and snags to its clients. Breaking Even: â€Å"Break-even analysis is a technique widely used by production management and management accountants. It is based on categorizing production costs between those which are "variable" (costs that change when the production output changes) and those that are "fixed" (costs not directly related to the volume of production).† (Break-Even) The sales volume required by a business to make profits is called a breakeven point; the following answer will present the breakeven point of Albatross. Breakeven point comes into the picture when a pricing strategy is being d eveloped. This pricing strategy can be a part of either the marketing plan or the business plan. The best option between A and B would be selected giving a just explanation. Fixed Cost per unit= Total fixed cost/ Volume of Production In this case it is x=$500,000/5000 X=$10 (Fixed cost per unit in process A) Case B= $12 Anchor and Process Process A Process B a Fixed Cost per Anchor $10 $12 b Total no of Anchors to Attain Break-Even 50000 Units 62500 Units I would recommend process A because the break-even would require only 50000 units whereas in process B it would require 62500 Units. The sooner the break-even is reached the better. So process A is recommended considering that it would take much lesser time to sell 50000 units than 62500 units. One very important long term change would to invest heavily in latest technology, the second long term change would be to buy more land to effectively manage the needs of the company. One short term change would be to access more shipping op tions; the second option would be to choose the most effective shipping option. The technology that is being used in the company is without a doubt obsolete, they have to invest in new machines. They can never expect growth should they keep using the same obsolete machinery. The company needs to invest in technology; the use of outdated technology can never facilitate growth. New machines will produce better products and at a good speed, this will make the company much better than ever. This will also bring down the cost of production, the old machines require much maintenance, and this would be much different in the case of new machines. Ergonomics: Ergonomics aims at two most important things, they are health and productivity. When an employee is unwell, he will never be able to produce what is expected of him and the organization will suffer because of his lack of productivity. Easy to use machines should be bought by an organization so that the employees never get affected and t heir productivity is never hampered. The organization must not buy anything that will affect the health of the employees. In this particular case Albatross

Russian Revolution and Europe in 1920-1930's Essay

Russian Revolution and Europe in 1920-1930's - Essay Example This leaded to the foundation of the new government for the development of the country. There were economic and social changes in the country due to this revolution. The social structure was changed in Russia. Even the British Ambassador Sir George Buchanan advised Tsar Nichols II to "break down the barrier that separates you from your people to regain their confidence" (Russian Revolution of 1917 page1). The impact of the revolution leaded to change in economical condition. The cities and the industries had grown after the revolution. The villagers also migrated to industrial works to strengthen their economic condition. The middle class also made a growth. The new class of capitalist was forming in the Russia. The social changes were also occurred. As the economic condition was strengthen due to urbanization the thinking was also changed in people about the society. Now the people were thinking for changing their social status by contributing to the government. Even they are looking forward for solving their problem like sanitary problem, low wages problem by meetings and dialogues. After the end of World War-I various treaties were signed by the European countries which destabilized their economic condition... There was a demand for paying the compensation. There were many restrictions imposed on the Germany. There were many other consequences of the World War-I., new countries like Austria, Hungary were born as a result of the war. Many parts of the Europe like Galicia; Trieste etc. were given allotted to countries like Poland, Italy etc. respectively. These transformations of region were due to many treaties like Treaty of Saint-German on 10 September, 1919 and Treaty of Trianon on June 4, 1920 (Wikipedia Page1). Many governments and empires had fallen due to this war like end of Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Svres was signed for this on August 10, 1920. Thus the political structure was de-stabilized by all these outcomes of war in Europe. The major blow was to the governments of Germany, Turkey kingdom etc. The economic status of the loser countries in the Europe was damaged. The structural blow was also there as the many cities were extinguished as a result of the war. Thus the people also failed in believing their governments. Thus the political situation in many countries was changed due to the war and treaties signed after the war in compromise by the loser countries. The Adolf Hitler was the chancellor of Germany from1933. He remained the leader of Germany up to his death from 1933. He was the leader of his Nationalist Socialist German Party. He was the leader in Germany who asked the people to enter in World War. He founded the Nazism. Mussolini was the

Restraints and seclusion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Restraints and seclusion - Essay Example aises the concern if restrained re-traumatizes the sick at their most vulnerable, if seclusion damages the alliance of therapeutic and if that is the case if it can undergo justification. Studies from Massachusetts consider the vulnerable to be mostly affected by seclusion. The vulnerable consist of those with past sexual abuse, physical abuse, physical trail, developmentally disabled, physically trail, and sensory impaired patients. Therefore, seclusion can easily lead to re-traumatization to the above named group of individual. LaFond, R. (2007, September). Reducing Seclusion and Restraint for Improved Patient and Staff Safety. In a https://www.crisisprevention.com., 2 (4), 12 Retrieved July 9, 2013, from https://www.crisi prevention .com/CPI/media /Media/Resources/research/Lafond-from-07-JSM-JOU-002. Pdf This article â€Å"Reducing seclusion and restraint for improved patient and staff safety† by Randall Lafond talks about the benefits of avoiding seclusion and restraints for patients. The author states that there should be legal law which reduces seclusion and restraint among patients. The article explains the way in which health care services disregard the importance of the reduction of seclusion and restraints. He states that staff must be trained to encourage the practice of reducing seclusion and restraint among patients. As per LaFond, â€Å"In the baseline year of 2002, 83 episodes of seclusion and restraint were documented. The total documented time was 220:03 minutes against 1606 admissions and a total of 16,054 patient days†. He asserts that for the safety of psychiatric patients the reduction of seclusion and restraints is important. Master, K. (2004). Can narrative therapy decrease the use of seclusion and restraint, 2 (4), 34. Retrieved July 8, 2013, from http://www.aacap.org/AACAP/M ember Resources/Practice_Information/SR_Articles/Can_Narrative_Therapy_Decrease_th e_Use_of_Seclusion_and_Restraint.aspx This article by Kim Masters states whether

Microbiology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Microbiology - Essay Example There are 2 types of photophosphorylation and they are cyclic and noncyclic. In cyclic photophosphorylation, the electron begins in a pigment complex called photosystem I, passes from the primary acceptor to plastoquinone, then to cytochrome b6f (a similar complex to that found in mitochondria), and then to plastocyanin before returning to chlorophyll. In the noncyclic type, first, a water molecule is subjected to photolysis and broken down into 2H+ + 1/2 O2 + 2e- The two electrons released thus from the water molecule are kept in photosystem II. The 2H+ and 1/2O2 are left out for further use. Thereafter, a photon is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments on surrounding the reaction core center of the photosystem. The light excites the electrons of each pigment and this causes a chain reaction. The reaction transfers energy to the core of photosystem II and causes excitation of the two electrons that are transferred to the primary electron acceptor, pheophytin.

Margaret Newman's Theory of Health As Expanding Consciousness Assignment - 1

Margaret Newman's Theory of Health As Expanding Consciousness - Assignment Example In this theory, Newman redefines nursing as the means of understanding the person in connection to the environment and also as the manner of understanding of consciousness. It is the nurse who should help people to understand and use the potential within to acquire the greater level of consciousness. Newman also describes the relationship between time, space and movement. According to her, space and time are the secular patterns of a person. Both of them have reciprocal relationships. Human beings are continually evolving through space and time, and it displays a unique model of reality (Brown 2011). Newman states that human beings are open to the entire systems of energy in the universe and also regularly interacting with the energy. It is through such environmental interactions that human beings can develop their unique individual patterns. Newman emphasizes the importance of understanding individual patterns. The recognition of such individual patterns amounts to expanding consciousness. The symptoms of diseases depend on individual patterns. Therefore, the diagnostics of the illnesses exists before the signs appear. Thus, the removal of such signs does not alter the individual formation (Newman). In my opinion, Newman’s theory is about a new approach of seeing health and diseases as manifestations of the evolving patterns of the interaction of individuals with the environment. Therefore, diseases should not be seen as separate entities of people’s health. Diseases should be seen as part of the self-organizing process of expanding consciousness instead of viewing them as negative aspects of health. The treatment of diseases should, therefore, shift from the usual treatment of symptoms to a new approach of searching for patterns. The usual role of nursing is addressing the problems of diseases, but the new role should be helping people get in touch with their individual patterns of

Welfare to work programs Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Welfare to work programs - Term Paper Example It is a requirement for any recipient of CalWORKs who is able-bodied to participate in the activities of the welfare in order to continue receiving support. There are many providers of these programs, for instance, voluntary organisations as well as private companies. They achieve this by securing contracts in order to find employment for the claimants. The payment largely depends on the results and the providers take the risk until they get the required results. The welfare for work law was put in place in order to limit the time one receives welfare, thus the need to participate in the welfare activities for 32 to 35 hours per week, for every week. The introduction of this new welfare system has sparked different and varying viewpoints and understanding of the informants of the program. The understanding of the informants about the policy differs greatly from that of the policy makers and the state administrators. The informants pointed out the numbers of positive outcomes and benefits of these programs. They pointed out that employment improves their self-image and their self-confidence. The fact that they are able to be productive a nd get a source of livelihood from it gave them as continues to give them a sense of achievement and purpose in life. Being employed makes them proud of themselves rather than just receiving welfare and support that they have not worked for. The informants also alluded to the fact that the employment programs they receive help them provide materially for their families. They are able to pay for their bills, as well as buy material possessions for themselves and their children. Informants have also highlighted the fact that the day care programs helped their children gain proper socialization. Moreover, they were contented with the fact that working made them value the little time that they spend with their children. In nut-shell informants view the employment programs in terms of the concrete benefits that

Love What are your thoughts on the Futurist Manifesto - how do you see Personal Statement

Love What are your thoughts on the Futurist Manifesto - how do you see it in the artwork they produced - Personal Statement Example Marinetti started the manifesto by describing the new versus the old. He (6) personifies various places and machines in the new age period and compares them with the old ones. In one of his comments in the book,he states that the â€Å"the old ways of thinking are gone,defeated at last†. He (12) gave an example of condemning all museums and academies and comparing them with cemeteries that are not worth focusing on. Indeed Marinettis manifesto was very much anarchistic. Moreover,he encouraged dangerous methods to achieve beauty as he believed that there was no struggle without beauty. In addition,he This shows how Marinettis words were, indeed very forceful. Marinetti along with other artists(22) around him wrote about literature, music, dance, performance, paintings and architecture. All that reiterated a cognate of ideas which reverberated through the multitudes of all forms of art expression in the 20th century(26). His projection of words in his book is like a machine gun in action of firing bullets. I can clarify his writing technique as both visual and sonic. The techniques blur the borderline dimension in which a synesthesia is evoked,making a more pro-founding impact on the Italian people. The separation of the the futurism movement from the previous art movement is the focus on outward understanding. That is what Marinetti movement was all about. Therefore, people who view his work should understand the benefit of external factors in life like struggle and revolution without forgetting the internal factors

Occupy Wall Street Movement Essay Example for Free

Occupy Wall Street Movement Essay The Occupy Wall Street movement started from young protestors growing tired of high student loans and low grossing wages. The movement had moral and economic implications. These implications could be compared to utilitarian, Kantian, and virtue ethics, with one that best applies to the movement. There are several people and organizations that can be held responsible for the inequality and wealth distribution in the U.S. There is an equitable outcome that would be appropriate for our capitalistic society from this movement. The movement will fade away with time with likely outcomes to come from the protests. Discuss the moral and economic implications involved in the movement. One of the main concerns of the Occupy Wall Street movement is the rising cost of college and student loans. If student loans were forgiven, however, it wouldnt solve the fundamental problem of costly education. A government program that forgave student loans would improve the finances of people holding student loans, but it would do so at the expense of taxpayers in America. Many of these taxpayers would fall within the 99%. Furthermore, by seeking bailouts for student loans, the Occupy Wall Street movement is fundamentally no different than the banks and corporations that theyre criticizing. For the most part, media coverage of the Occupy Wall Street protest has been predictable. Stories are narrated according to the pro/con structure typical of balanced reporting or sensationalism. On the one hand, positive focus sympathetically explains why protesters have been demonstrating en masse since Sept. 17. These accounts place the activist mantra of â€Å"We are the 99%† in a historical and economic context that connects significant inequalities in wealth to violations of justice that should prompt people of conscience to demand rectification. On the other hand, negative reports argue against interpreting the protest as legitimate civil disobedience. Occupy Wall Street is an especially interesting collective action movement because it embodies a distinctive and pervasive shift in ethical orientation. The long-simmering forces that gave rise to the protests also have profoundly altered how students today view their place in society. Analyze each of the implications identified above against the utilitarian, Kantian, and virtue ethics to determine which theory best applies to the movement. Support your position with examples and evidence. We are living in historic times. Capitalism will not be brought down in this through this movement. This is as a result of weaknesses of linkages between working class revolutionary theory and practice as represented by the partisan and broader social manifestation of this most decisive force of bringing to birth a new world on the ashes of that morass which we now live in. But it is an hour in which great leaps forward can be made and are being made. Such hours come with lessons that would be invaluable for us living today and for generations coming after us that would eventually cleanse the life of humankind of the ugliness and pains that capitalism stamps on its beauty and fullness. Utilitarian ethics on its own part conflates the expansion of wealth in society as a whole with greater happiness for the greater number of persons in society, thus losing sight of the proportional increase in unhappiness for most members of society that create the wealth, with the expansion of such wealth, which a few appropriate (Ferguson 2008). This is of particular importance for industrial relations, which addresses the site of relations in the process of production. Determine who is responsible for income inequality and wealth distribution in the U.S. In your analysis, make sure to include if this is something that happened suddenly or if it built up over time. Explain your rationale. Wealth accumulates over time. The highest earners are able to save much of their incomes, whereas lower earners can’t. That means high earners can accumulate more and more wealth as time goes on (assuming they don’t blow it all, of course). Higher-earning Americans also have the resources to pay for better tax preparation, which helps them reduce their taxes and save even more money. On the tax front, note also that people who have already accumulated wealth stand to earn a lot in capital gains, which are also taxed at a lower rate. Most of the attention paid to economic inequality pertains to what people are making each hour or each year, not what they already have stored up or what kind of cushion they have to fall back on. Perhaps that’s bec ause most people do not have a firm grasp of how much they’re â€Å"worth,† but they can always look to their paychecks to see how much they have coming in, and can make easier comparisons to their neighbors. Proposals for a wealth tax resurface periodically. The idea is always contentious since it basically requires double-taxation of earnings. There are lots of existing examples of double-taxation on the books, though. Few measures would help the long-term health of the economy more than reducing the economic and political clout of Wall Street. The financial sector exists to connect savers with investors and to do so at the lowest feasible cost and risk. In a sensible world, we would view the financial sector as nothing more than a transactions cost to be minimized along the way to producing the goods and services that the economy is really about. No society has come close to making wealth distribution equal. The great egalitarian experiments of the 20th century proved this, as attentive readers have known since the 1957 publication of Yugoslav dissident Milovan Ä ilas’ The New Class: An Analysis of the Communist System, which revealed shocking disparities in quality of life in the â€Å"workers’ paradises† of Eastern Europe. China gave the world a horrific double-shot of rural poverty and relative urban wealth; it is only since the country joined global trading markets that it has seen provincial poverty decline. At the same time, income inequality in China has grown, as it does in every rising economy. Growing wealth disparities are in fact a sign that overall prosperity is increasing in a competitive marketplace. The economist Gary Becker recently described how this works: â€Å"It would be hard to motivate the vast majority of individuals to exert much effort, including creative effort, if everyone had the same earnings, status, prestige, and other types of rewards. Fewer individuals would engage in the hard work involved in finishing high school and going on to college if they did not expect their additional education to bring higher incomes, better health, more prestige, and better opportunities to marry.† Creating general equality of opportunity is among the greatest U.S. achievements. But creating equality of outcomes has caused misery everywhere it has been tried. Suggest an equitable outcome from the movement that would be appropriate for our capitalistic society. This protesting will end up in getting at least one of the following token changes enacted: Eliminating the electoral college but leaving campaign finance untouched; Outlaw lobbying and then creating a new official department with a new name that companies use to lobby through; Legalize gay marriage; Raise the tax on the rich a small amount for a few years. After winning this token victory the people will go back home to their normal lives and get stuck in the rat race again. It’s true that loan forgiveness will not solve the fundamental problem with education costs, because the real problem is that corporations just aren’t interested in paying for it, they’d rather make money off it, which is precisely what they’re doing. But this does not mean that the costs have to be shi fted to the taxpayer. The private institutions that created the debt in the first place ought to bear the burden. But there is a way that education costs can be drastically reduced without raising taxes a dime on anyone, even corporations: by slashing the defense budget. There are high-quality universities in third world countries that have negligible education costs, simply because they are funded directly by the public sector. Why the richest country on the planet can’t have inexpensive education as well is anathema. Cutting the defense budget increasing education spending are some of the main goals of the Occupy movement, which are also shared by the vast majority of the population, but unfortunately not by our politicians. Michael OHanlon examines proposed budget cuts for the Department of Defense, noting that U.S. military will have to eliminate programs and forces just to accomplish the savings goals now on the books, and outlining possible ideas for cutting spending without harming national security. Predict whether the movement will continue, fad away, or turn into something else. Provide a rationale with your response. Occupy Wall Street was at the pinnacle of its power in October 2011, when thousands of people converged at Zuccotti Park and successfully foiled the plans of billionaire Mayor Michael Bloomberg to sweep away the occupation on grounds of public health. From that vantage point, the Occupy movement appears to have tumbled off a cliff, having failed to organize anything like a general strike on May Day, despite months of rumblings of mass walkouts, blockades and shutdowns. If history repeats itself then the police will continually harass the protesters and make their lives miserable using nonphysical methods. It will not come to Americans getting shot by law enforcement officials. Technology and a more connected culture has changed the political landscape so that less outrages more people. And the Internet has given every person in the world a megaphone that can be heard around the world. It doesn’t take too many people with megaphones to rally the world. Americans will put their collective foot down after a few more beatings well before it comes to shooting. Plus, a lot of law enforcement personnel are pretty fed up with the system themselves. If the protesters made a more concentrated effort to win the hearts and minds of the police and the military they could speed up the process of forcing the government to throw them their victory sooner than later. The Occupy Wall Street movement started from young protestors growing tired of high student loans and low grossing wages. The movement had moral and economic implications. These implications could be compared to utilitarian, Kantian, and virtue ethics, with one that best applies to the movement. There are several people and organizations that can be held responsible for the inequality and wealth distribution in the U.S. There is an equitable outcome that would be appropriate for our capitalistic society from this movement. The movement will fade away with time with likely outcomes to come from the protests. Reference: Business Ethics 2010 Money.msn.com Huffingtonpost.com Cleanbreak.com/ocuupywallstreet

Concepts of Cultural Artefacts

Concepts of Cultural Artefacts This paper discusses about cultural artefacts and the concepts of the cultural artefacts. It also provides the artefacts of the cultural in order to represent the cultural events, economics and the entertainments. This paper analyses the details of the artifact that related to the values and the beliefs of the culture and it also investigates the deep cultural roots of the artefacts. It analyses the historical roots that are allowed to the artefacts of the culture. This paper examines the influences of the artefacts to the development of the cultural period. It also concludes with this concept by providing the better evolution that might undergo to the cultural artefacts. Cultural artefacts The artifact is the one that made by the human being and typically it is an item of historical interest. The cultural artifact is made by observing something in a scientific way of investigation and that is naturally presented. The artifact is the element in which the historical events, situations, entertainment, heritage can be identified by the human being. The artefacts include the function, architecture the designs and so on for the identification of the cultural influences. It is the historical tools that can deliver the environment of the earlier cultural people. The cultural artefacts have the deep roots in the case of representing the philosophy, religion, and economics of the earlier culture. In the case of African culture, the music was the main artifact on their culture and the impact of the music on the African culture positively. Their society and the regions are contributing the musical traditions. The music was the better influence on the African culture and they impact their heritage, entertainment and the social perspectives of the African culture. In earlier, many languages were spoken by African and those languages led the connection among the music in their local cultures. The African music influenced the language, the environment, politics, a variety of cultures, and the population movement of the Africans. African culture had characterised by the cultures, traditions, beliefs, religions and the artistic expressions. African people had integrated music in their daily actions and the music was the inspiration part of their lives. The forms of the music influenced their traditions, beliefs and religious and the artistic expression and the values. The forms of the music also contributed in the case of love appreciation among the African people and their music involved in the case of community participation. In African culture, the musical practises have influenced the social, economic, and the political structures and they impact the African people positively. The musical traditions of Africa were dynamic, and the music practises had modified the African culture throughout the creative and the traditions were articulated inter-generationally. The musical traditions of Africa had impacted by various factors that are trade, colonialism, religious expansion, and the migration. The African music traditions were popular and they got the positive feedback from other countries by their performance in the case of composing music. The African music became very famous in the case of expressing their opinions, contentions, share philosophy and display the critiques. The African musical traditions were utilized for the communication, synchronization, adversity and so on. The music was composed not only for entertainment and but for delivering the philosophical messages and the concepts of the African culture. African students were engaged to discussing the variety of artists for the evaluation of the musical direction and so on. African musical practises were provided with emotion, power, rhythm that are through the field hollerers, work songs and the blues. African music had set the standards and they became the source of the perfect music styles in their culture. The African musical traditions were very popular when compared to other cultures and hence they have the capability to cover the audience. Musical traditions were the functional in Africanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ethnic life and that were accompanying birth, marriage, hunting and political activities. The music traditions were involved in the case of politics, economic and the social perspectives of the African culture. African people were traditionally ensures the passage of the cultural practises from one generation to another. The historical accounts of the African music and the dance can be found from the oral literature of the African culture. The aesthetic and the utilitarian were the functions and they were served by the African musical traditions. The functions involved in everyday activities of the African people such as child rearing practises, national ceremonies, initiation rules and the agricultural activities. They were considered as the historical roots of the African musical traditions. The musical practises of the African were played a vital role in the case of religious influence. The number of musical songs was provided for the Christian services and hence the musical practises encourage the Christianity in African culture. On the other hand the Islamic and the Arabic people were also composing the musical concepts for their culture and the religion. In the case of political activities, the African musical practises were utilised for addressing the activities in the African culture. The African political department recognized the musical practises to enhance the entertainment of the African people and to enhance the society of the Africa in the case of music. The one of the music historical root was politics for the musical artefacts in Africa. The social, political and the economical factors were the historical roots of the African musical practises. The political ways of approach was the responsible for the musical development in Africa and they allowed the music to enhance in future. In traditional cultural period, the African music was motivated for the enhancement and the musical cultural period was from 1889-1990. During that time the music composers were developed and now also they are providing the better contribution in the case of developing the musical artefacts. The major development has occurred in the case of musical artefacts between 1889 and 1990. The anticipation will be effective in the musical practises to the African future generation. The musical technologies will be developed more in future culture of Africa and the people will be excellent in the case of composing musical and the dance artefacts. They will be the best music composers in the world when compared to other cultures. This musical artifact will be passed to the future generation of the Africa as perfect and they will be also motivated the musical composers and this artifact will get the higher value among the future generations. This entertainment will provide the better outcome to African culture and to the future generations. In future, the evolution of the musical artifact will be rhythm, melody and the harmony and they can provide the better musical experience to the musical artefacts. The evolution of the music will be effective for the future generations and the music artefacts will be delivered with the various technologies in African culture. African culture was the sources of the musical artefacts and they could only provide the various types of musical methods. The African culture will be modified by the utilization of the western music artefacts and this will be future evolution. Conclusion African cultural artefacts and the importance of their artefacts were discussed. The relationship of the musical artefacts with the beliefs and the African cultural perspectives were described. The historical roots of the African culture were detailed and the cultural periods of African artefacts were examined. The future evolution and the anticipation of the musical artifact was concluded.

Luteolin and Kaempferol From Cassia Alata

Luteolin and Kaempferol From Cassia Alata LUTEOLIN AND KAEMPFEROL FROM CASSIA ALATA, ANTIMICROBIAL AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF ITS METHANOLIC EXTRACTS ANEELA WAHAB, TAHIRA, SABIRA BEGUM, ANJUM AYUB, IFFAT MAHMOOD, TALAT MAHMOOD, AQEEL AHMAD  AND NIDA FAYYAZ Abstract Cassia alata also known as candlebush is a medicinally important plant. In the present investigation we are reporting the isolation and structure elucidation of two flavonoids kaempferol (1) and luteolin (2) isolated from methanolic extract of its beans through bioassay guided fractionation. The structure of isolated compounds were characterized by spectroscopic techniques such as EIMS, 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR. In this article we are also presenting the antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant activity of the methanolic extract of its leaves (CA-L), stem (CA-S) and beans (CA-BN). All the extracts showed remarkable antibacterial and weak antioxidant activity whereas moderate antifungal activity was only found in stem (CA-S) and beans (CA-BN) extracts. Introduction Cassia alata (Synonym; Senna alata) belonging to the family Leguminosae and subfamily of Fabaceae, commonly known as seven golden candlesticks, and ringworm senna (Quattrocchi U., F.L.S., 2012). This plant is native to the West Indies, tropical America, found wild almost throughout India and Pakistan (Khare C.P., 2007). C. alata with golden blooms is a summer bloomer and a striking spring that last for several weeks but prefer cooler month for flowering (Ray A.B., et al., 2010, Krishnan M. K. S., 1992). This shrub may grow up to 3 meters tall with irregular, angled, glabrous branches. Flowers have bright yellow colour. It has long, membranous, dehiscent pods with 25 or more seeds per pod (Ross I.A., 2003, Bhattacharjee S.K., 2004). Cassia alata is widely used as traditional medicine in India and Southeast Asia ( Reezal I., et al., 2002 ). This plant is reported to possess insecticidal, anti-inflammatory, hydragogue, sudorific, diuretic, pesticidal properties. Fresh leaves juice is used for ring worm, snakebite, scorpion bite, skin diseases, impetigo, syphilis sores, itching, mycosis (washerman’s itch), herpes and eczema. Roots, leaves and flowers of this plant possess many biological properties such as antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, expectorant and also useful in urinary tract problems (Quattrocchi U., F.L.S., 2012), asthma, bronchitis and constipation (Joshi S.G., 2000). The ethyl acetate extract of C. alata leaves possess hypoglycaemic activity (Ray A.B., et al, 2010). This plant also has hepatoprotective property. The main constituents of C.alata are flavonoids, alkaloids, anthraquinone derivatives, tannins, sterols and triterpenes (Neharkar V.S., Gaikward K.G., 2011). The pr esent paper describe the isolation and characterization of kaempferol (1) and luteolin (2). Herein we are also reporting the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of the methanolic extract of leaves, stem and beans of this plant. All the extracts showed significant antibacterial (Table 2) and weak antioxidant activity (Table 4). Antifungal activity (Table 3) was only observed in the extract of stem and beans. Experimental Materials and Methods General: Silica gel PF254 (Merk) was used for vacuum liquid chromatography (VLC). Thin layer chromatography (TLC) was performed on pre-coated silica gel F254 (Merck). Gel permeation chromatography was performed on sephadex LH-20 (Pharmcia). The EIMS (electron impact mass spectrometery) were scanned on Jeol-JMS HX-110 mass spectrormeter. The 1H and 13C-NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) spectra were recorded on a Bruker spectrometer operating at 300 and 75 MHz respectively. The chemical shift values are reported in à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤ (ppm) relative to SiMe4 (Tetra methyl silane) as an internal standard. The coupling constant (J) is given in Hz. Plant Material: The Cassia alata was collected from Karachi (Sindh) and identified by Mr. Ghulam Rasool. A voucher specimen (86464) has been deposited in the herbarium at Department of Botany, Faculty of Science University of Karachi, Sindh Pakistan. Extraction and Isolation: The air dried leaves (7 kg), stem (5 kg) and beans (5 kg) of Cassia alata were extracted repeatedly with methanol at room temperature. The solvent was evaporated under vacuum to give 2 kg crude extract of leaves (CA-L), 3 kg crude extract of stem (CA-S) and 750 g crude extract of beans (CA-BN). The dark greenish brown gummy crude extract of beans (CA-BN) was partitioned with ethyl acetate (EtOAc), water (discard) and n-butanol fractions. Each fraction was concentrated in vacuum to have 15 g EtOAc and 15 g n-butanol soluble fractions. The EtOAc soluble fraction was further partitioned with n-hexane to obtained n-hexane soluble fraction and n-hexane insoluble fraction. The n-hexane soluble fraction (14 g) was subjected to vacuum liquid chromatography (VLC) (n-hexane: n-hexane: EtOAc in order of increasing polarity) which furnished 22 fractions (Fr-1-Fr-22). The Fr-15 was subjected to reverse-phase column chromatography using sephadex column LH-20 (CHCl3;CHCl3:MeOH in order of increasin g polarity) which yielded 12 fractions (Fr-15-1-Fr-15-12). The Fr-15-9 was further subjected to reverse phase column chromatography using sephadex column LH-20 (n-hexane:CHCl3:MeOH in order of increasing polarity) furnished 18 fractions (Fr-15-9-1-Fr-15-9-18). The Fr-15-9-10 eluted with n-hexane:CHCl3:MeOH (0.5:3:1.5) gave yellow amorphous powder which showed single spot on TLC using CHCl3: MeOH (9.2:0.8) as a solvent system was identified as kaempferol (1) (37 mg). The Fr-15-9-9 was further subjected to reverse-phase column chromatography using sephadex column LH-20 (n-hexane:CHCl3:MeOH in order of increasing polarity) which yielded 13 fractions (Fr-15-9-9-1 to Fr-15-9-9-13). The Fr-15-9-9-3 eluted with n-hexane:CHCl3:MeOH (0.5:3:1.5) showed single spot on TLC (CHCl3:MeOH, 9.2:0.8) appeared as yellowish powder and was identified as luteolin (2) (27 mg). Biological assay: Screening of antibacterial activity: The disc diffusion method (Bauer et al, 1966) was used to determine the antibacterial activity of methanolic extracts. 100 mg/ml of stock solution was prepared by dissolving extracts in DMSO. Sterile filter discs containing 10 à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ­l of stock solution were used for screening. The Mueller Hinton agar (Oxoid) plates were seeded with 24 hours old culture grown in Mueller Hinton broth (Oxoid). The prepared discs were placed onto the surfaces at different positions and plates were incubated at 37à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ °C for 24 hours. Results were recorded by measuring the zone of inhibitions in mm. Gentamicin was used as a standard. Screening of antifungal activity: Antifungal activity was also determined by disc diffusion method (Bauer et al, 1966) as above. Briefly, a small amount of culture was transferred to 2-3 ml distilled water or normal saline in a screw capped tube with few glass beads (1 mm in diameter) and vortexes for 5-10 minutes to make a homogeneous suspension of fungal culture. Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) plates were seeded with this suspension. Sterile filter discs containing 10 à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ­l of stock solution were placed onto the surfaces at different positions. Plates were incubated at room temperature for 1 week. Results were recorded by measuring the zone of inhibitions in mm. Gresiofulvin was used as a standard. Determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC): MIC of methanolic extracts were determined by the disc diffusion method ( Bauer et al, 1966). Sterile discs containing different concentrations of samples varying from 0.98 to 1000 à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ­g per disc were prepared. The MIC of those extracts showing maximum zone of inhibition against microorganism were calculated ( Table 2 ). Antioxidant activity: Antioxidant activity was determined by using the method described by Lee et al. (1998). 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) was prepared in ethanol (300  µM). 10  µL of each extract and 90 ÃŽ ¼L solution of stable radical, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) was added in 96 well micro titer plates and incubated at 37 º C for 30 minutes. Absorbance was measured at 515 nm by using a spectrophotometer. Percent inhibition of radicals by treatment of test sample was determined by comparison with a DMSO treated control group. % Inhibition = (absorbance of the control-absorbance of the test sample) x 100 Absorbance of the control Ascorbic acid was used as standard control. The EC50 value calculated denotes the concentration (in ug/ml) of sample required to scavenge 50% of DPPH Characterization of Kaempferol (1) Yellow amorphous powder. 1H-NMR à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤ (300 MHz, CD3OD): 8.09 (2H, d, J = 8.7 Hz, H-2’, 6’), 6.91 (2H, d, J = 8.7 Hz, H-3’, 5’), 6.43 (1H, d, J = 1.8 Hz, H-8), 6.19 (1H, d, J = 1.8 Hz, H-6). EIMS m/z: 286 [M]+. 13C-NMR (see Table 1). All data were identical with that of reported in literature (Hadizadeh F., et al, 2003, Gangwal A., et al, 2010). Characterization of Luteolin (2) Yellow amorphous powder. 1H- NMR à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤ (300 MHz, CD3OD): 7.39 (1H, dd, J = 9.0, 1.8 Hz, H-6’) ,7.36 (1H, d, J = 1.8 Hz, H-2’), 6.88 (1H, d, J = 9.0, Hz, H-5’), 6.53 (1H, s, H-3), 6.43 (1H, d, J = 1.8 Hz, H-8), 6.19 (1H, d, J = 1.8 Hz, H-6). EIMS m/z: 286 [M]+. 13C-NMR (see Table 1). All data were identical with that of reported in literature (Saeidnia S., et al, 2009). Results and discussion: The phytochemical investigation of the methanolic extracts of Cassia alata beans resulted in the isolation of kaempferol (1) and luteolin (2). Compound (1) showed molecular ion peak at m/z 286 having molecular formula C15H10O6. Its 1H-NMR spectrum showed the characterstic peak of H-2’ and 6’ as a doublet at à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ®Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  with ortho coupling of 8.7 Hz whereas H-3’ and 5’ with similar ortho coupling appeared at à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  6.91 as a doublet.1H-NMR spectrum of 1 further displayed signals of aromatic protons as a doublet at à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  6.19 (H-6) and at à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   6.43 (H-8) showing meta coupling of 1.8 Hz. The EIMS spectrum of compound (2) is similar to (1) having same molecular mass (m/z 286) and formula (C15H10O6). In the 1H-NMR spectrum of 2 characterstic peak of H-3 appeared at à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  6.53 as a singlet. Other important signals observed at à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  6.88 (d, J = 9.0, Hz, H-5’), à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  7.36 (d, J = 1.8 Hz, H-2’) and à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  7.39 (dd, J = 9.0, 1.8 Hz, H-6’). The aromatic protons H-6 and H-8 showed same à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  and J value as in compound 1. The 13C-NMR spectrum (Table 1) of both compounds 1 and 2 displayed signals of nine quaternary and six methine carbons . All the 13C assignments are in agreement with the reported data (Gangwal A., et al, 2010, Saeidnia S., et al, 2009). The results of antibacterial activity indicated that all the methanolic extracts of C. alata (CA-L, CA-S and CA-BN) have potential to kill various pathogenic gram+ve and gram-ve bacteria (Table 2), whereas good antifungal activity was observed in CA-S and CA-BN extracts against Fusarium specie (Table 3). All the extracts (CA-L, CA-S and CA-BN) showed less than 50% inhibition of DPPH radicals in antioxidant activity (Table 4). CONCLUSION: The known flavonoids kaemferol (1) and luteolin (2) were isolated from the methanolic extracts of C. alata beans. The structure of the isolated compounds were elucidated by various spectroscopic techniques. Pharmacological investigations have indicated that all the extracts (CA-L, CA-S and CA-BN) of this plant possess significant antimicrobial and weak antioxidant activity. References: Bauer, A.W., Kirby, W.M.M., Sherris, J.C., Turck, M. (1966). Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardized single disk method. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 45, 493–496. Bhattarchrjee, S.K. and Michael,A.M. (2004). Hand Book of Medicinal Plants. Pointer Publishers Jaipur 302003 (Raj), India, pp. 77-78. Gangwal, A., Parmar, S.K., Sheth, N.R. (2010). Vol. 2(1). Triterpenoid, flavonoids and sterols from Lagenaria siceraria fruits. Scholars Research Library. pp. 307- 317. Hadizadeh, F., Noaman, K., Hossein, H., Randa, K.A. (2003). Kaempferol from Saffron Petals. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. pp. 251-252. Joshi, S.G. (2000). Medicinal Plants. Oxford and IBH publishing Co.Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, Calcutta, India, pp. 117. Khare, C.P. (2007). Indian Medicinal Plants.Springer.New Delhi, India, pp.126. Krishnan, M.K.S. (1992). Vol.3. The Wealth of India. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research New Delhi, India, pp. 328. Lee, S. K., Zakaria, H., Chuyng, H. L., Kuyengl, L.,Games, E. J. C., Mehta, R. J., Kinghorn, D., and Pezzuto, J. M. (1998). Evaluation of the antioxidant potential of natural products.Combinatorial Chemistry and High Throughput Screening.1: 35-4 Neharkar, V.S., Gaikwad, K.G. (2011). Vol. 2(1). Hepatoprotective activity of Cassia alata (Linn.) leaves against Paracetamol-induced hepatic injury in rats. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences: pp. 783-788. Quattrocchi, U., F.L.S. (2012). Vol.5 R-Z: CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants. CRC Press Taylor Francis Group Boca Raton New York, USA, pp. 236-237. Ray, A.B., Chansouria, J.P.N. and Hemalatha, S. (2010). Medicinal Plants: antidiabetic and Hypoglycaemic Activities. ibdc Publishers Lucknow, India, pp. 95. Ross, I.A. (2003). vol.1. Medicinal Plants of the World. Humana Press, Totowa, New Jersey, pp. 165-166. Reezal, I., Somchit, M. N. and Abdul Rahim, M. (2002). Vol.1. In vitro Antifungal Properties of Cassia alata (GELNGGANG BESAR). Proceedings of the Regional Symposium on Environment and Natural Resources. pp. 654-659. Saeidnia, S., Yassa, N., Rezaeipoor ,R., Shafiee, A., Gohari, A. R., Kamalinejad, M., Gooderzy, S. (2009). Vol. 17(1). Immunosuppressive principles from Achillea talagonica, an endemic species of Iran. Journals.tums.ac.ir: pp. 37-41. Table 1. C13-NMR spectral data of kaempferol (1) and luteolin (2) in CD3OD (ppm) at 75 MHz Table 2. Antibacterial activity of different extracts of Cassia alata (zone of inhibition in mm) CA-L= Cassia alata Leaves, CA-S = Cassia alata Stem, CA-BN = Cassia alata Beans. Table 3. In Vitro Antifungal activity (zone of inhibition in mm) Table 4. Antioxidant activity of Methanolic extracts of C.alata

Justice Essay -- essays research papers

Justice When the question is asked "Can we live in a just world?" In effect it is asking us a variety of things. "Can there be justice for all?" and "Can there be equality for all people?". The answer to this question is no. Unfortunately we live in a world where justice has never really transpired. The first justice that I would like to speak about is personal justice. Blessed are those reared in a household innocence of the deadly sin of envy. Their lives will be tormented by a grinding resentment that they are not beautiful, or famous, or favored with gifts of fortune. They will not demand as a natural right or an entitlement of personal equality with everybody under the sun; nor maintain that their opinions are as good as anybody else's. They will not covet a neighbors' goods. And thus they may come to know peace of soul. The injustice of equality 10/15/93 The point of this statement is not to say that envy makes equality. When we wish for "personal equality" with people, we wish to deny what we really are and allow for superficialness. We become so obsessed with our possessions that we forget who we are and the beauty of our differences. Aristole said that "it is unjust to treat unequal things equally". All people are different, that is exactly what makes us human, so when we treat people entirely the same, we deny their identity. For example that does not mean that I should not treat all people with respect, but I fee...

Economic Analysis of The U.S. 2001-2003 Essay -- essays research paper

Economic Analysis of The U.S. 2001-2003   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Economics have many indicators to describe how it runs. The indicators can show if the economy has improved or declined. The economic indicators that will be focused on in this analysis of the United States economy from 2001 – 2003 will be the consumer price index, the imports and exports, the unemployment rate, and finally the gross domestic product. Now while most may know the meanings of the previously stated indicators, for those who don’t, they remain useless unless defined. To begin with, these indicators will have to be defined in full to aid in understanding the analysis in more detail. It will be after that that the actual analysis of the economy of the United States from 2001 – 2003 will begin.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first indicator to be discussed will be the consumer price index. The consumer price index can be described as â€Å"a price index that measures the cost of a fixed basket of goods chosen to represent the consumption pattern of individuals† . This is mainly used by the government and private sector to measure the changes of the prices that consumers deal with . Also the reference to basket refers to a collection of items representing a purchasing pattern of a typical consumer. The consumer price index has many components itself such as medical, transportation, household services, rent, durables, non-durables, apparels, food and beverage, and other services . This is relevant to show how much prices have increased from a base year .   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Imports and exports weigh heavily on how well an economy could be. Imports are defined as â€Å"a good produced in a foreign country and purchased by residents of the â€Å"home† country† . For example an import would be as if in the United States were to get some kind of certain product from another country. Exports are defined as â€Å"a good produced in the â€Å"home† country and sold in another country† . An example of this is if the United States were to sell a product to another country. Ideally speaking, imports should be less then total exports. If the total exports are more then the total imports, that means more money is being received in the homeland, if there is more importing than exporting, that means that the country will be not be gaining from the exports. The United States has a poor import to export rati... ...r will again be on the up and up, with a 3.3% in gross domestic product, showing that 2003 was going to be a positive year . The third quarter was at an astounding 8.2% showing a massive increase from the previous quarters . 2003 would be a year of higher production; in fact it was the highest producing year of the three analyzed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion, looking at these indicators, there has been am explanation of home the economy was in the years 2001-2003 in the United States. Discussed were the consumer price index, the imports and exports, the unemployment rate, and finally the gross domestic product. By seeing how these all went it will be open for people to take the given data analyzed in this paper and come up with their own interpretation of the data. This is an analysis of the United States economy for the years 2001-2003.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited 1.http://money.cnn.com/2003/11/25/news/economy/gdp/?cnn=yes 2.http://www.bls.gov/ 3.http://www.ita.doc.gov/td/industry/otea/usfth/tabcon.html 4.O’Sullivan, Arthur and Sheffrin, Steven M. Economics Principles and Tools. Third Edition. Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle, New Jersey. 2003.

Personal Reflections on the Self Essay

I  certify that  the attached  paper is my original work and has not previously been submitted by me or anyone else for any class. I further declare I have cited all sources from which I used  language, ideas, and information,  whether quoted  verbatim or paraphrased, and that any assistance of any kind, which I received while producing this paper, has been acknowledged in the References section. I have obtained written permission from the copyright holder for any trademarked material, logos, or images from the Internet or other sources. I further agree that my name typed  on the line below is intended to have, and shall have, the same validity as my handwritten signature. Student’s  signature (name typed here is equivalent to a signature):   Marjorie Neal When we talk about self, it is generally meant to be a reflection of an individual’s identity and separate from others and the environment (Huitt, 2009). The most widely used concepts when it comes to self are the self-concept and self-esteem. Self-esteem is the sense of self worth and dictates how we feel about ourselves where self-concept is dictated by how an individual answers the question â€Å"who am I? †(Myers, 2008). Research has shown that self-concept is the basis for all motivated behavior because self-concept that provides individuals with possible selves and those possible selves create the motivation for behavior (Huitt, 2009). Self-concept is built through the process of taking action and reflecting on the action one has taken as well as what others tell him about what he has done (Huitt, 2009). We are not born with a self-concept. Self-concept is developed through interaction with the environment and one’s reflection of that interaction. Self-concept has four parts: self-image, self-esteem, ideal-self and self-efficacy My sister had all the friends that my parents approved of, she got the good grades, she was not in special education classes and at home report cards and progress reports were constantly compared. I never heard that I was doing a great job or that I had improved on this subject or that it was always how wonderful my sisters grades were compared to my C’s that I worked very hard for in the early years. By the third grade I was behind in reading and math so I had to go to special classes to get help on those subjects. I not only felt inadequate at home but the other students in school made me feel very stupid and not good enough. I was picked on at school and called all sorts of names from stupid to Margarine to Rhino. Looking back it was kids being kids and picking on me because they could see that it bothered me. I used to come home in tears and all my parents said was to ignore them and they would stop but they did not stop. I was in the â€Å"loser† group and there was no getting out of it. By third grade I believed them. When I entered Junior High School, I started off in the lowest group for my classes, the one that all the troublemakers were in and all the â€Å"stupid† kids. I got tired of being lumped with those kids and decided I could do better so I decided I was going to work hard and talk to my teachers about moving up a group. In sixth grade I went from group four to group three at the half way point in the year. This gave me a bit of a boost but I still was not happy. I wanted to be one of the smart kids like my sister was so that my parents would be proud. So in seventh grade I worked harder and talk to my teachers and I was moved from group three into group two. I was feeling better about myself and continued to push harder until I was finally in group one by the end of the eighth grade. Being in group one meant I could take the college level classes I wanted to take in High School, it also meant that I was just as good as my sister was but that did nothing for me at home because I was struggling to pull C’s and my sister was still pulling A’s. Nonetheless, I was proud of my accomplishment and myself so I tried college level classes in High School. I did fine in college English but not so good in Math. I found that high school was very difficult for me and after all those years of trying to be as good as my sister I still could not pull the same grades no matter how hard I worked at it. I gave up and stopped taking college level classes with the hope that the other classes would be easier for me and I could pull the A’s and B’s that my parents were so proud of my sister for getting. When I continued to struggle my freshman and sophomore year I gave up and decided that I was going to do what it took to get those C’s and nothing more. I became very discouraged. Then my parents separated and we moved from my hometown to the Cape with my aunt so I had to change schools half way through my sophomore year. I was happy with that, a new group of kids to meet and different expectations by the kids I already knew in that school so this was going to be easy and that was my easiest semester ever. I finally got the good grades that I was looking for and my mother stopped criticizing me for my choice in friends. She actually approved of most of my friends. My sister at that point became the problem child. Then it all fell apart. My mother decided that she was going to take a job in Boise, Idaho and my sister and I had to move with her across the country. I had finally adjusted to the idea of my parents getting a divorce and now she was going to take me away from all of my life long friends and everything I knew. My attitude, self-esteem and everything went right down the toilet. When we got to Idaho I didn’t care anymore. I was going to do what I had to do to graduate and get out of my mother’s house so I could go back to Massachusetts where I knew people and I was home. I made poor choices in friends, poor choices in behavior, and poor choices in my schoolwork all because the only thing I could see was anger. I was so angry with both of my parents, my mother for making me move to Idaho and my father for not fighting to keep us in Massachusetts. It was like my opinion did not matter and once again my sister was the queen. All the good I had done in junior high and down the Cape did not matter anymore. I graduated from high school, turned down a military career and moved back to Massachusetts where I met my first husband. It was a marriage destined to fail. My first husband was very abusive verbally and emotionally. He constantly made me feel like I was not worth the dirt I walked on. I was diagnosed bipolar two years after we got married and he never took the time to learn about it, said he didn’t believe in mental illness and did not help me find the help I needed so it was a very rocky ten-year marriage. I did get two wonderful children out of the marriage though, of that I was thankful and challenged. After my first husband and I divorced, I met my current husband. He is the exact opposite of my first husband. We have a very good relationship. It was the relationship with my first husband and all the abuse that I went through in the ten years we were married and my childhood experiences that made me who I am today.

A Format for Case Conceptualisation

Many professional and personal challenges confront practicum students as they work with clients. For example, students must establish a counseling relationship, listen attentively, express themselves clearly, probe for information, and implement technical skills in an ethical manner. Those counseling performance skills (Borders & Leddick, 1987) center on what counselors do during sessions.At a cognitive level, students must master factual knowledge, think integratively, generate and test clinical hypotheses, plan and apply interventions, and evaluate the effectiveness of treatment. Those conceptualizing skills, within the cognitive operations used to construct models that represent experience (Mahoney & Lyddon, 1988), show how counselors think about clients and how they choose interventions. It is highly desirable for instructors of practica to have pedagogical methods to promote the development both of counseling performance skills and conceptualizing skills.Such methods should be d iverse and flexible to accommodate students at different levels of professional development and with distinct styles of learning (Biggs, 1988; Borders & Leddick, 1987; Ellis, 1988; Fuqua, Johnson, Anderson, & Newman, 1984; Holloway, 1988; Ronnestad & Skovholt, 1993; Stoltenberg & Delworth, 1987). RATIONALE FOR THE FORMAT In this article, we present a format for case conceptualization that we developed to fill gaps in the literature on the preparation of counselors (Borders & Leddick, 1987; Hoshmand, 1991).Although many existing methods promote counseling performance skills, there are few established methods for teaching students the conceptualizing skills needed to understand and treat clients (Biggs, 1988; Hulse & Jennings, 1984; Kanfer & Schefft, 1988; Loganbill & Stoltenberg, 1983; Turk & Salovey, 1988). We do not discount the importance of counseling performance skills, but we believe that they can be applied effectively only within a meaningful conceptual framework. That is, wh at counselors do depends on their evolving conceptualization of clients; training in that conceptualization matters.Given the large quantity of information that clients disclose, students have the task of selecting and processing relevant clinical data to arrive at a working model of their clients. Graduate programs need to assist students in understanding how to collect, organize, and integrate information; how to form and test clinical inferences; and how to plan, implement, and evaluate interventions (Dumont, 1993; Dumont & Lecomte, 1987; Fuqua et al. , 1984; Hoshmand, 1991; Kanfer & Schefft, 1988; Turk & Salovey, 1988).Although systematic approaches to collecting and processing clinical information are not new, the case conceptualization format presented here, as follows, has several distinguishing features: 1. The format is comprehensive, serving both to organize clinical data (see Hulse & Jennings, 1984; Loganbill & Stoltenberg, 1983) and to make conceptual tasks operational ( see Biggs, 1988). The components of the format integrate and expand on two useful approaches to presenting cases that are cited often and that are linked to related literature on supervision: (a) Loganbill and Stoltenberg's (1983) six content areas of clients' functioning (i. . , identifying data, presenting problem, relevant history, interpersonal style, environmental factors, and personality dynamics), and (b) Biggs's (1988) three tasks of case conceptualization (i. e. , identifying observable and inferential clinical evidence; articulating dimensions of the counseling relationship; and describing assumptions about presenting concerns, personality, and treatment). In addition, the format makes explicit the crucial distinction between observation and inference, by separating facts from hypotheses.It advances the notion that observations provide the basis for constructing and testing inferences. Thus, the format fosters development of critical thinking that is more deliberate and le ss automatic than the ordinary formation of impressions. The approach is compatible with recommendations that counselors receive training in rational hypothesis testing to reduce inferential errors (Dumont 1993; Dumont & Lecomte, 1987; Hoshmand, 1991; Kanfer & Schefft, 1988; Turk & Salovey, 1988). 2.The format can be adapted to the developmental stage of students by its focus on stage-appropriate components and implementing those components in stage-appropriate ways (Ellis, 1988; Glickauf-Hughes & Campbell, 1991; Ronnestad & Skovholt, 1993; Stoltenberg & Delworth, 1987). As an example, beginning students use the format to organize information and to learn the distinction between observation and inference, whereas more experienced students focus on using the format to generate and test hypotheses. 3. The format is atheoretical, thereby permitting students to ncorporate constructs from any paradigm into their case conceptualizations. In this sense, the format resembles the cognitive s caffolding described in the constructivist perspective (Mahoney & Lyddon, 1988). Rather than being an explicit template through which observations are filtered to conform to an imposed representational model, the format provides an abstract set of cognitive schemas. With the schemas, the student actively fashions a conceptual framework from which to order and assign meaning to observations.Simply put, the format is a generic structure that the student uses to construct his or her â€Å"reality† of the case. COMPONENTS OF THE FORMAT The format has 14 components, sequenced from observational to inferential as follows: background data, presenting concerns, verbal content, verbal style, nonverbal behavior, client's emotional experience, counselor's experience of the client, client-counselor interaction, test data and supporting materials, diagnosis, inferences and assumptions, goals of treatment, interventions, and evaluation of outcomes. Background data includes sex, age, race, ethnicity, physical appearance (e. . , attractiveness, dress, grooming, height, and weight), socioeconomic status, marital status, family constellation and background, educational and occupational status, medical and mental health history, use of prescribed or illicit substances, prior treatment, legal status, living arrangements, religious affiliation, sexual preference, social network, current functioning, and self-perceptions. Initially, students are overwhelmed by the data that they assume need to be collected. Guidance must be provided on how students are to differentiate meaningful from inconsequential information.In our program, for example, we ask students to evaluate the relevance of background data, for understanding clients' presenting concerns and for developing treatment plans. We advise students to strive for relevance rather than comprehensiveness. Presenting concerns consist of a thorough account of each of the client's problems as viewed by that client. This task mi ght begin with information contained on an intake form. We assist students in developing concrete and detailed definitions of clients' concerns by showing them how to help clients identify specific affective, behavioral, cognitive, and interpersonal features of their problems.For example, the poor academic performance of a client who is a college student might involve maladaptive behavior (e. g. , procrastination), cognitive deficits (e. g. , difficulty in concentrating), negative moods (e. g. , anxiety), and interpersonal problems (e. g. , conflict with instructors). Counseling students should also explore the parameters of presenting concerns, including prior occurrence, onset, duration, frequency, severity, and relative importance.We further suggest that students explore how clients have attempted to cope with their concerns and that they examine what clients expect from treatment, in terms of assistance as well as their commitment to change. In addition, students should assess i mmediate or impending dangers and crises that their clients may face. Finally, we instruct students in identifying environmental stressors and supports that are linked to presenting concerns. Verbal content can be organized in two ways. A concise summary of each session is appropriate for cases of limited duration.Alternatively, verbal content can include summaries of identified themes that have emerged across sessions. Occasionally, those themes are interdependent or hierarchically arranged. For example, a client may enter treatment to deal with anger toward a supervisor who is perceived as unfair and, in later sessions, disclose having been chronically demeaned by an older sibling. We teach students to discriminate central data from peripheral data through feedback, modeling, and probing questions. Students need to focus their sessions on areas that are keyed to treatment.For instance, we point out that clients' focal concerns, along with the goals of treatment, can serve as ancho rs, preventing the content of sessions from drifting. Verbal style refers to qualitative elements of clients' verbal presentation (i. e. , how something is said rather than what is said) that students deem significant because they reflect clients' personality characteristics, emotional states, or both. Those elements can include tone of voice and volume, changes in modulation at critical junctures, fluency, quantity and rate of verbalization, vividness, syntactic complexity, and vocal characterizations (e. g. , sighing).Nonverbal behavior includes clients' eye contact, facial expression, body movements, idiosyncratic mannerisms (e. g. , hand gestures), posture, seating arrangements, and change in any of these behaviors over time and circumstances. Instructors can assist students in distinguishing relevant from unimportant information by modeling and providing feedback on how these data bear on the case. As an example, neglected hygiene and a listless expression are important nonverb al behaviors when they coincide with other data, such as self-reports of despair and hopelessness. Clients' emotional experience includes data that are more inferential.On the basis of their observations, students attempt to infer what their clients feel during sessions and to relate those feelings to verbal content (e. g. , sadness linked to memories of loss). The observations provide insights into clients' emotional lives outside of treatment. We caution students that clients' self-reports are an important but not entirely reliable source of information about their emotional experience. At times clients deny, ignore, mislabel, or misrepresent their emotional experience. Students should note the duration, intensity, and range of emotion expressed over the course of treatment.Blunted or excessive affect as well as affect that is discrepant with verbal content also merit attention. To illustrate, a client may report, without any apparent anger, a history of physical abuse. Initially, students can be assisted in labeling their clients' affect by using a checklist of emotional states. We have found it helpful to suggest possible affect and support our perceptions with observation and logic. Empathic role taking can also help students to gain access to clients' experience. Instructors may need to sensitize students to emotional states outside of their own experience or that they avoid.Counselor's experience of the client involves his or her personal reactions to the client (e. g. , attraction, boredom, confusion, frustration, and sympathy). We strive to establish a supportive learning environment in which students can disclose their genuine experiences, negative as well as positive. Students often struggle to accept that they might not like every client. But students should be helped to recognize that their experience of clients is a rich source of hypotheses about feelings that those clients may engender in others and, thus, about the interpersonal world that the clients partially create for themselves.The â€Å"feel† of clients often provides valuable diagnostic clues (e. g. , wanting to take care of a client may suggest features of dependent personality disorder). Sometimes students need assistance in determining whether their reactions to clients reflect countertransferential issues or involve â€Å"normative† responses. We draw on parallel process and use-of-self as an instrument to help clarify students' feelings and to form accurate attributions about the origins of those feelings (Glickauf-Hughes & Campbell, 1991; Ronnestad & Skovholt, 1993).Client-counselor interaction summarizes patterns in the exchanges between client and counselor as well as significant interpersonal events that occur within sessions. Such events are, for example, how trust is tested, how resistance is overcome, how sensitive matters are explored, how the counseling relationship is processed, and how termination is handled. Thus, this component of t he format involves a characterization of the counseling process. Students should attempt to characterize the structure of the typical session–specifically, what counselors and clients do in relation to one another during the therapy hour.They may do any of the following: answer questions, ask questions; cathart, support; learn, teach; seek advice, give advice; tell stories, listen; collude to avoid sensitive topics. Taxonomies of counselor (Elliott et al. , 1987) and client (Hill, 1992) modes of response are resources with which to characterize the structure of sessions. At a more abstract level, students should try to describe the evolving roles they and their clients play vis-a-vis one another. It is essential to assess the quality of the counseling relationship and the contributions of the student and the client to the relationship.We ask students to speculate on what they mean to a given client and to generate a metaphor for their relationship with that client (e. g. , do ctor, friend, mentor, or parent). Client-counselor interactions yield clues about clients' interpersonal style, revealing both assets and liabilities. Furthermore, the counseling relationship provides revealing data about clients' self-perceptions. We encourage students to present segments of audiotaped or videotaped interviews that illustrate patterns of client-counselor interaction.Test data and supporting materials include educational, legal, medical, and psychological records; mental status exam results; behavioral assessment data, including self-monitoring; questionnaire data, the results of psychological testing, artwork, excerpts from diaries or journals, personal correspondence, poetry, and recordings. When students assess clients, a rationale for testing is warranted that links the method of testing to the purpose of assessment. We assist students in identifying significant test data and supporting materials by examining how such information converges with or departs from o ther clinical data e. g. , reports of family turmoil and an elevated score on Scale 4, Psychopathic Deviate, of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 [MMPI-2; Hathaway & McKinley, 1989]). Assessment, as well as diagnosis and treatment, must be conducted with sensitivity toward issues that affect women, minorities, disadvantaged clients, and disabled clients, because those persons are not necessarily understood by students, perhaps due to limited experience of students or the â€Å"homogenized† focus of their professional preparation.Diagnosis includes students' impression of clients' diagnoses on all five axes of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV, American Psychiatric Association, 1994). We guide students' efforts to support their diagnostic thinking with clinical evidence and to consider competing diagnoses. Students can apply taxonomies other than those in the DSM-IV when appropriate (e. g. , DeNelsky and Boat's [1 986] coping skills model).Instructors demonstrate the function of diagnosis in organizing scattered and diverse clinical data and in generating tentative hypotheses about clients' functioning. Inferences and assumptions involve configuring clinical hypotheses, derived from observations, into meaningful and useful working models of clients (Mahoney & Lyddon, 1988). A working model consists of a clear definition of the client's problems and formulations of how hypothesized psychological mechanisms produce those problems.For instance, a client's primary complaints might be frequent bouts of depression, pervasive feelings of isolation, and unfulfilled longing for intimacy. An account of those problems might establish the cause as an alienation schema, early childhood loss, interpersonal rejection, negative self-schemas, or social skills deficits. We help students to elaborate on and refine incompletely formed inferences by identifying related clinical data and relevant theoretical const ructs (Dumont, 1993; Mahoney & Lyddon, 1988).We also assist students in integrating inferences and assumptions with formal patterns of' understanding drawn from theories of personality, psychopathology, and counseling (Hoshmand, 1991). As with their instructors, students are not immune from making faulty inferences that can be traced to logical errors, such as single-cause etiologies, the representative heuristic, the availability heuristic, confirmatory bias, the fundamental attribution error, and illusory correlations; (Dumont, 1993;Dumont & Lecomte, 1987). As an example, counselors tend to seek data that support their preexisting notions about clients, thus restricting the development of a more complete understanding of their clients. We alert students to the likelihood of bias in data gathering, particularly when they seek to confirm existing hypotheses. Furthermore, we demonstrate how to generate and evaluate competing hypotheses to counteract biased information ]processing (Du mont & Lecomte, 1987; Kanfer & Schefft, 1988).Instructors, therefore, must teach students to think logically, sensitizing them to indicators of faulty inferences and providing them with strategies for validating clinical hypotheses as well as disconfirming them (Dumont & Lecomte, 1987; Hoshmand, 1991). The proposed format can accomplish this task because it separates inferences from the clinical data used to test inferences and thus â€Å"deautomatizes† cognitive operations by which inferences are formed (Kanfer & Schefft, 1988; Mahoney & Lyddon, 1988).We have found it beneficial to have students compare their impressions of clients with impressions that are independently revealed by test data (e. g. , MMPI-2); this exercise permits the correction of perceptual distortions and logical errors that lead to faulty inferences. Although students' intuition is an invaluable source of hypotheses, instructors need to caution them that intuition must be evaluated by empirical testing and against grounded patterns of understanding (Hoshmand, 1991). We also model caution and support for competing formulations and continued observation.This approach fosters appreciation of the inexactitude and richness of case conceptualization and helps students to manage such uncertainty without fear of negative evaluation. With the development of their conceptualizing skills, students can appreciate the viability of alternative and hybrid inferences. Moreover, they become more aware of the occasional coexistence and interdependence of clinical and inferential contradictions (e. g. , the simultaneous experience of sorrow and joy and holistic concepts such as life and death).The increasingly elaborate conceptual fabric created from the sustained application of conceptualizing skills also enables students to predict the effect of interventions more accurately. Goals of treatment must be linked to clients' problems as they come to be understood after presenting concerns have been ex plored. Goals include short-term objectives along with long-term outcomes of treatment that have been negotiated by the client and trainee. Typically, goals involve changing how clients feel, think, and act. Putting goals in order is important because their priorities will influence treatment decisions.Goals need to be integrated with students' inferences or established theories and techniques of counseling. In their zeal, students often overestimate the probable long-term aims of treatment. To help students avoid disappointment, we remind them that certain factors influence the formulation of goals, including constraints of time and resources, students' own competencies, and clients' capacity for motivation for change. Interventions comprise techniques that students implement to achieve agreed-on goals of treatment.Techniques are ideally compatible with inferences and assumptions derived earlier; targets of treatment consist of hypothesized psychological structures, processes, and conditions that produce clients' problems (e. g. , self-esteem, information processing, family environment). Difficulties in technical implementation should be discussed candidly. We provide opportunities for students to observe and rehearse pragmatic applications of all strategies. Techniques derived from any theory of counseling can be reframed in concepts and processes that are more congruent with students' cognitive style.To illustrate, some students are able to understand how a learned fear response can be counterconditioned by the counseling relationship when this phenomenon is defined as a consequence of providing unconditional positive regard. In addition, we teach students to apply techniques with sensitivity as well as to fashion a personal style of counseling. Finally, legal and ethical issues pertaining to the conduct of specific interventions must be made explicit. Evaluation of outcomes requires that students establish criteria and methods toward evaluating the outcome s of treatment.Methods can include objective criteria (e. g. , grades), reports of others, self-reports (e. g. , behavioral logs), test data, and students' own judgments. Instructors must assist students in developing efficient ways to evaluate progress over the course of treatment given the presenting concerns, clients' motivation, and available resources. USES OF THE FORMAT We developed the :format for use in a year-long practicum in a master's degree program in counseling psychology. Instructors describe the format early in the first semester and demonstrate its use by presenting a erminated case; a discussion of the format and conceptualization follows. The first half of the format is particularly helpful when students struggle to organize clinical data into meaningful categories and to distinguish their observations from their inferences. The focus at that point should be on components of the format that incorporate descriptive data about the client. Later in their development, when students are prepared to confront issues that influence the counseling relationship, components involving personal and interpersonal aspects of treatment can be explored.As students mature further, components that incorporate descriptive data are abbreviated so that students can concentrate on the conceptualizing skills of diagnosis, inferences and assumptions, treatment planning and intervention, and evaluation. When conceptualizing skills have been established, the format need not be applied comprehensively to each case. Rather, it can be condensed without losing its capacity to organize clinical data and to derive interventions. The format can be used to present cases in practicum seminar as well as in individual supervision sessions. It can also be used by students to manage their caseloads.Also, the format can be used in oral and written forms to organize and integrate clinical data and to suggest options for treatment (cf. Biggs, 1988; Hulse & Jennings, 1984; Loganbill & Stoltenberg, 1983). For example, practicum seminar can feature presentations of cases organized according to the format. As a student presents the data of the case, participants can construct alternative working models. Moreover, the format compels participants to test their models by referencing clinical data. Written details that accompany a presentation are also fashioned by a student presenter according to the format.The student presenter can distribute such material before the presentation so that members of the class have time to prepare. During the presentation, participants assume responsibility for sustaining the process of case conceptualization in a manner that suits the class (e. g. , discussion, interpersonal process recall, media aids, or role play). Supervision and case notes can also be structured more flexibly with the use of the case conceptualization format to give students opportunities to relate observation to inference, inference to treatment, and treatment to outcome (Presser & Pfost, 1985).In fact, supervision is an ideal setting to tailor the format to the cognitive and personal attributes of the students. In supervision, there are also more opportunities to observe students' sessions directly, which permits instruction of what clinical information to seek, how to seek it, how to extract inferences from it, and to evaluate the veracity of students' inferences by direct observation (Holloway, 1988). FUTURE APPLICATIONS AND RESEARCH The format is a potentially valuable resource for counselors to make the collection and integration of data systematic when they intervene with populations other than individual clients.Application of the format to counseling with couples and families might seem to make an already conceptually demanding task more complex. Yet counselors can shift the focus from individuals to a couple or a family unit, and apply components of the format to that entity. By targeting relationships and systems in this way, the format can also be used to enhance understanding of and improve interventions in supervision and with distressed units or organizations.Although research has been conducted on how counselors collect data, few studies have investigated how counselors process information when testing hypotheses (e. g. , Strohmer, Shivy, & Chiodo, 1990). Empirical evidence of the effectiveness of various approaches to the conceptual training of counselors is long overdue. Avenues of inquiry include determining whether the format contributes to the acquisition of conceptualizing skills and to facilitative conditions and techniques thai: may be mediated by such skills (e. . , empathy and clear communication). There are several written measures available with which to evaluate students' conceptualizing skills. Examples of those measures are the Clinical Assessment Questionnaire (Holloway & Wolleat, 1980); Intentions List (Hill & O'Grady, 1985); and Written Treatment Planning Simulation (Butcher, Scofield, & Baker, 1985). Interpersonal process recall of audiotaped and videotaped sessions, case notes (Presser & Pfost, 1985), and direct observation can also be used.Other promising directions for research include comparing the effect of the format with other approaches to training, isolating components of the format that produce the greatest gains in conceptualizing skills, and determining the outcomes when the format is implemented with the use of different instructional strategies and with students at varying levels of development. Finally, investigation into how the format produces cognitive and performance gains would be valuable, particularly if integrated with literature on cognitive development and effective learning strategies.Nonetheless, the format has several limitations. Although students will eventually learn to apply the format more efficiently in their professional practice, it remains cumbersome and time consuming. Explicit and comprehensive application of the format in supervision and in the routine management of individual caseloads is particularly awkward. In those contexts, the format must be applied tacitly as a heuristic, with specific components used more deliberately when obstacles to progress are encountered.For example, focus on a client's affective experience can promote accurate empathy in the student and lead to more helpful interventions. Moreover, given the differences in the cognitive development of students (Biggs, 1988; Borders & Leddick, 1987; Ellis, 1988; Fuqua et al. , 1984; Ronnestad & Skovholt, 1993; Stoltenberg & Delworth, 1987), the format cannot be applied rigidly or uniformly as a pedagogical tool. Beginning students and those who think in simple, concrete terms seem to profit most from learning environments in which instructors provide direction, expertise, feedback, structure, and support.Conversely, more experienced students and those who think in complex, abstract terms learn more readily when instructors fashion auto nomous, collegial, flexible, and interactive environments (Ellis, 1988; Glickauf-Hughes & Campbell, 1991; Ronnestad & Skovholt, 1993; Stoltenberg & Delworth, 1987). Hence, the format must be applied creatively and tailored to students' capabilities, to avoid needless discouragement, boredom, or threats to personal integrity (Fuqua et al. , 1984; Glickauf-Hughes & Campbell, 1991; Ronnestad & Skovholt, 1993; Stoltenberg & Delworth, 1987)